Alcohol is classed as a
‘sedative hypnotic’ drug, which means it acts to depress the central nervous
system at high doses. At lower doses, alcohol can act as a stimulant, inducing
feelings of euphoria and talkativeness, but drinking too much alcohol at one
session can lead to drowsiness, respiratory depression (where breathing becomes
slow, shallow or stops entirely), coma or even death. As well as its acute and
potentially lethal sedative effect at high doses, alcohol has effects on every
organ in the body, and these effects depend on the blood alcohol concentration
(BAC) over time. After a drink is swallowed, the alcohol is rapidly absorbed
into the blood (20percent through the stomach and 80percent through the small
intestine), with effects felt within 5to 10minutes after drinking. It usually
peaks in the blood after 30to 90minutes, and thus is carried through all the
organs of the body. Most (90percent) of the metabolism, or breaking down, of
alcohol from a toxic substance to water and carbon dioxide is performed by the
liver, with the rest excreted through the lungs (allowing alcohol breath
tests), through the kidneys (into urine) and in sweat. The liver can break down
only a certain amount of alcohol per hour, which for an average person is around
one standard drink (which raises the BAC about 15to 20mg/dL the current limit
for driving in New Zealand is 80mg/dL). The BAC rises, and the feeling of
drunkenness occurs, when alcohol is drunk faster than the liver can break it
down. The BAC level, and every individual’s reaction to alcohol, is influenced
by:
• the ability of the liver to metabolise
alcohol (which varies due to genetic differences in the liver enzymes that
break down alcohol)
• the presence or absence of food in the
stomach (food dilutes the alcohol and dramatically slows its absorption into
the bloodstream by preventing it from passing quickly into the small intestine)
• the concentration of alcohol in the
beverage (highly concentrated beverages such as spirits are more quickly
absorbed)
• how quickly alcohol is drunk
• body type (heavier and more muscular
people have more fat and muscle to absorb the alcohol)
• age, sex, ethnicity (e.g. women have a
higher BAC after drinking the same amount of alcohol than men due to
differences in metabolism and absorption – since men have on average more fluid
in their body to distribute alcohol around than women do; some ethnic groups
have different levels of a liver enzyme responsible for the breakdown of
alcohol)
• how frequently a person drinks alcohol
(someone who drinks often can tolerate the sedating effects of alcohol more
than someone who does not regularly drink)
Alcohol is the most
widely abused psychoactive drug in the United States today. Slang terms include
booze, bubbly, firewater, joy juice, sauce, liquid courage, and many others.
Legal for those aged 21 and over, drinking is a deeply rooted aspect of our
culture. While there are many types of alcohol (an entire class of chemicals),
the type that is found in drinks and medicines is known as ‘ethyl alcohol’ or
‘ethanol.’ A yeast enzyme changes the simple sugars that are found in grapes,
potatoes, or corn into ethanol – the alcohol found in beer, malt liquor, wine,
liquors such as vodka and whiskey, wine coolers, and liqueurs like Irish cream.
Though many consider alcohol to have stimulant effects, it is actually
classified as a depressant – a substance that slows the central nervous system.
Other purposes for ethyl alcohol include uses as a chemical solvent, a local
anesthetic, and an irritant.
When a person drinks an
alcoholic beverage, it is very unlikely that he or she is actually drinking
pure alcohol; pure alcohol is extremely potent and takes only a few ounces to
raise a person’s blood alcohol level into the danger zone. The ethanol concentration
for common types of alcoholic drinks is as follows:
• Beer: 4-6%
• Malt liquor: 5-8%
• Wine: 7-15%
• Wine coolers: 5-10%
• Champagne: 8-14%
• Hard liquor (Distilled spirits - vodka, rum,
whiskey, etc.): 40-95%
• Grain Alcohol: 95-97.5%
Alcohol
and the Human Body
In 2015, of the 78,529
liver disease deaths among individuals ages 12 and older, 47.0 percent involved
alcohol. Among males, 49,695 liver disease deaths occurred and 49.5
percent involved alcohol. Among females,
28,834 liver disease deaths occurred and 43.5 percent involved alcohol. Among
all cirrhosis deaths in 2013, 47.9 percent were alcohol related. The proportion
of alcohol-related cirrhosis was highest (76.5 percent) among deaths of persons
ages 25–34, followed by deaths of
persons ages 35–44, at 70.0 percent.
In 2009,
alcohol-related liver disease was the primary cause of almost 1 in 3 liver
transplants in the United States. Drinking alcohol increases the risk of
cancers of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx, larynx, liver, and breast.
EFFECTS
OF ALCOHOL
The effects of drinking
depend on a variety of factors, including, but not limited to the:
• Amount of alcohol consumed
• Time taken to consume it
• Individual’s gender, weight, body size, and
percentage of body fat
• Amount of food in the stomach
• Use of medications, including
non-prescription drugs
• Mindset of the individual at the time of
consumption
• Setting in which the drinking takes place
Also, mixing alcohol
with other drugs can drastically increase the damaging effects of drinking. For
example, combining alcohol with narcotics (i.e., heroin, Oxycontin®, methadone)
can cause slowed breathing, heart attack, and death. For some, even the
combination of alcohol and aspirin can be extremely dangerous.
Short-Term
Effects
The short-term effects
of drinking alcoholcan cause numerous adverse effects on the user, including:
• Slowed reaction times and reflexes
• Poor motor coordination
• Blurred vision
• Slurred speech
• Lowered inhibitions and increase in risk
behavior
• Lowered reasoning ability, impaired judgment
• Memory loss
• Confusion, anxiety, restlessness
• Slowed heart rate, reduced blood pressure
• Slowed breathing rate
• Heavy sweating
• Nausea and vomiting
• Dehydration – a leading cause of condom
breakage
• Coma
• Death from respiratory arrest
A person who
consistently uses alcohol over a period of time will develop a tolerance to the
effects of drinking; that is, it takes progressively more alcohol to achieve
the same effects. Over time, that person may grow dependent on alcohol, and in
some cases this can lead to a vicious cycle of addiction.
Overall
body effects
Alcohol affects all parts of the body including:
• blood and immune system
• bones and muscles
• brain and nervous system
• breasts (in women)
• eyes
• heart and blood pressure
• intestines
• kidneys and fluid balance
• liver
• lungs
• mental health
• mouth and throat
• pancreas and digestion of sugar
• sexual and reproductive system – men
• sexual and reproductive system – women
• skin and fat
• stomach and food pipe (oesophagus).
BLOOD
AND IMMUNE SYSTEM
Long-term effects of alcohol
use Chronic heavy alcohol use can cause abnormalities in the blood, leading to
anaemia (low haemoglobin, the component of blood that carries oxygen around the
body) and low platelets (platelets help prevent bleeding).[13] Chronic heavy
alcohol use also suppresses the immune system (such as affecting the white
blood mouth and throat. Being drunk can cause slurred speech.
STOMACH
AND FOOD PIPE
Too much alcohol can
have short- and long-term effects on the oesophagus (food pipe) and the
stomach.
INTESTINES
Both the small
intestine and large intestine can be affected by long-term alcohol use,
including cancer risk.
LIVER
Long-term alcohol use
can cause damage to the liver in a variety of ways.
PANCREAS
Alcohol use,
particularly when heavy, can cause acute or chronic pancreatitis (inflammation
and damage to the pancreas).
KIDNEYS
Alcohol has an effect
on the kidneys’ functions. Too much alcohol can affect functions of the kidney.
HEART
Alcohol use at low
levels may be beneficial for the heart in some people but is harmful for
everyone at high levels.
BLOOD
Alcohol is absorbed
into the bloodstream and can have some long-term effect on mental health. Alcohol
can be used to relax but it is also addictive and can lead to dependency.
SEXUAL
HEALTH
Alcohol use can affect
judgment and increases the chance of unwanted sexual experiences. It can also
affect sexual performance in men.
BREASTS
(in women) Long-term
alcohol use increases the risk of breast cancer.
BONES
AND MUSCLES
Alcohol immediately
affects coordination and increases the likelihood of injury, while ongoing
heavy alcohol use can have other health effects. Alcohol use causes many
different types of injuries, including injuries from road traffic accidents,
assaults and falls. This is usually because high levels of blood alcohol impair
the brain’s thought processes and the coordination of muscles, causing
clumsiness and difficulty walking. Common injuries seen at the emergency department
include cuts, bruises, sprains and broken bones. The risk of injury in the six
hours after drinking doubles with four standard drinks and increases rapidly
the more alcohol is drunk on a single occasion.
EYES
Being drunk can cause
blurred vision.
SKIN
Alcohol use can have
direct and indirect effects on the skin.
Alcohol affects all
parts of the body including:
BRAIN
AND NERVOUS SYSTEM
Being drunk impairs
judgment, inhibitions and concentration, and in increasing amounts leads to
drowsiness and coma. The loss of memory for a period of drunkenness (alcoholic
blackout) can occur in occasional as well as regular heavy drinkers, and is due
to alcohol interfering with the laying down of memories.
HEART AND BLOOD PRESSURE
The evidence for the effect
of alcohol on the heart is mixed. There is an opinion that light to moderate alcohol
use (up to one standard drink per day for women and up to two standard drinks
per day for men) can, in older age groups, reduce the risk of developing and
dying from coronary artery disease (narrowing and blockage of the arteries
supplying blood to the heart resulting from the build-up of fatty deposits inside
the walls of the arteries (atherosclerosis), which can cause angina and heart attacks).
This appears to be because small quantities of alcohol alter the lipids and
clotting factors in the blood to make them protective against heart disease. However,
heavy drinking (both chronic and a pattern of heavy drinking sessions) increases
the risk of coronary artery disease. Heavy drinking (chronic and/or at a single
session) is also associated with sudden death from heart failure, with
irregular heartbeats and with chronic disease of the heart muscle (dilated cardiomyopathy).
Dilated cardiomyopathy leads to heart failure, where the heart can no longer
pump blood around the body effectively. Heavy chronic alcohol use is also linked to high blood pressure,
particularly in men. Blood pressure increases with drinking more than two or
three drinks a day on average and restriction of alcohol lowers the blood
pressure. Drinking alcohol in order to ‘protect the heart’ is not advisable,
since alcohol is an addictive drug that causes
cancer, increases the
risk of injury and causes damage to the fetus in pregnant women. People can
find it difficult to limit their drinking to one or two standard drinks a day and
heavy drinking actually increases the risk of heart disease and. People who
have risk factors for or have established heart disease should focus on other factors
such as cigarette smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, diabetes,
overweight and physical inactivity. Young and middle-aged adults, especially women,
are more likely to experience harm than benefit from alcohol use due to risk
from injury and, for women, increased risk from breast cancer.
INTESTINES
Long- term alcohol use
can cause cancer of the large bowel/intestines and rectum. Alcohol can lead to
malnutrition and diseases due to low vitamin levels, as it blocks the
absorption of many important vitamins and nutrients in the gut.
KIDNEYS AND FLUID BALANCE
Alcohol is a diuretic,
meaning that it causes water to be lost from the body through the kidneys (into
urine), which can lead to dehydration. Alcohol can also cause the loss of important
minerals and salts from the body such as magnesium, calcium, phosphate, sodium
and potassium, either directly or because alcohol induces vomiting. Low levels
of these elements can cause many problems ranging from irregular heartbeats to
seizures.
LIVER
Chronic heavy alcohol
use can damage the liver, causing alcoholic liver disease. This occurs across a
spectrum from fatty liver, to acute alcoholic hepatitis, to cirrhosis. Fatty
liver, where fat builds up in the liver cells, is very common in heavy drinkers
and is reversible if drinking is reduced. However, a small percentage of people
with fatty liver will develop alcoholic hepatitis, cirrhosis or liver cancer. Alcoholic
hepatitis develops in 10to 35percent of heavy drinkers and is an acute injury
to the liver which can present with symptoms of feeling unwell, tiredness,
jaundice (yellow skin and whites of eyes), swollen stomach and enlarged, tender
liver. Death from liver failure can occur in severe cases. Cirrhosis of the
liver develops in 5to 15percent of heavy drinkers and is where the liver is
permanently damaged and cells are replaced by scar tissue, so the liver can no
longer function (to detoxify the body, make vital proteins, store vitamins and
sugars, and make chemicals necessary for digestion). Cirrhosis can also lead to
death from liver failure. Treatment for alcoholic liver disease must include stopping
the drinking of alcohol. Alcohol also causes liver cancer, and treatment
options are often limited if alcoholic liver disease is present or the cancer
has spread widely by the time of diagnosis. This means liver cancer is often
quickly fatal.
LUNGS
Being drunk increases
the risk of pneumonia (inflammation of the lungs, usually caused by infection
from bacteria or viruses). This is because, at high blood concentrations,
alcohol is sedating and relaxes the mouth and throat, suppresses reflexes (like
the gag and cough reflexes), and reduces the ability of the lungs to clear
mucus and foreign matter, so that vomit, saliva or other substances may enter the
lungs and cause inflammation and infection (bronchitis or pneumonia). Chronic
heavy alcohol use is also associated with higher rates of pneumonia,
tuberculosis (an infectious disease that affects primarily the lungs but also
any other part of the body), and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS – a
life-threatening condition in which the lungs fill with fluid, which occurs as
a rare complication of pneumonia, trauma and severe infections). In addition to
the ways in which acute alcohol use can cause pneumonia, chronic heavy alcohol
use also impairs the immune system and changes the bacteria present in the
mouth to those more likely to cause infections, making people more vulnerable
to pneumonia.
MENTAL HEALTH
Many people use low doses
of alcohol for relaxation and to relieve tension, nervousness and stress. However,
in some people alcohol creates rather than reduces stress through stimulating
stress hormones. Alcohol affects mood in a variety of ways, and can make people
feel happy, sad or aggressive, and can also cause moods swing. However, there
is a risk of becoming dependent on alcohol if it is used as a primary means to
relieve stress and anxiety without addressing the underlying causes. Because it
removes inhibitions and increases aggression and recklessness, alcohol is often
found in the blood of people who self-harm, or attempt or complete suicide. Alcohol
is addictive and can lead to dependency. This is where the body requires more
alcohol to achieve the desired effect (e.g. altered mood), where use of alcohol
interferes with a person’s life (causing legal, work/study, relationship or social
problems), where a person continues to use alcohol despite it causing physical or
mental problems, and where, if alcohol is not taken, withdrawal symptoms occur.
The severity of withdrawal symptoms depends on the quantity of alcohol consumed
and the length of the drinking session. Symptoms include shaking of the hands,
which commonly occurs the morning after the drinking session and may be
relieved by more alcohol. If alcohol is not taken, symptoms can progress to insomnia,
increased heart rate, temperature and blood pressure, sweating, agitation,
nausea, flushing of the face, nightmares, hallucinations (seeing, hearing or feeling
things that are not present) and fits. The most serious withdrawal syndrome is
‘delirium tremens’, which develops in about 5percent of people with alcohol
withdrawal (more if fits are not treated) and by definition includes the
symptom of delirium (an altered and confused state of mind). This syndrome has
a death rate of around 5percent. In people who drink heavily, alcohol commonly
causes mood disorders, including depression, anxiety and psychosis (a mental
illness defined by changes in personality, a distorted sense of reality, and
delusions). If these disorders only occur during drinking sessions or
withdrawal, they will usually resolve once drinking is stopped. Alcohol abuse
and dependency are also common in people with pre-existing mental health
conditions.
MOUTH AND THROAT
Being drunk can have various
effects on speech, such as making people more friendly, talkative, unreserved, relaxed
or argumentative. Increasing amounts of alcohol can cause aggressive,
antisocial, angry, slurred and confused speech. Alcohol is a carcinogen, meaning
that it causes cancers in humans. Regular alcohol use increases the risk of cancers
of the mouth, throat and voice box. Drinking around 50g of alcohol a day (five
standard drinks) increases the risk of these cancers by two to three times
compared with non-drinkers, but for people who smoke, this risk is increased
much more. Drinking more increases the risk of cancers, and drinking less
decreases the risk of cancers.
PANCREAS AND DIGESTION OF SUGAR
Heavy alcohol use on a
single occasion can lead to dangerously low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia), which can cause symptoms of
shaking, sweating, dizziness,blurred vision and, if not
treated, brain damage. The pancreas is a gland that secretes digestive enzymes
and releases insulin, which regulates sugar levels in the blood.Chronic heavy
alcohol use can cause acute pancreatitis (sudden inflammation of and damage to
the pancreas that resolves over several days) and chronic pancreatitis (inflammation
of the pancreas that does not heal and worsens over time). Acute pancreatitis
typically causes abdominal and back pain, nausea and fever and may occur a few
hours or up to two days after drinking alcohol. In 20to 30percent of people,
acute pancreatitis is a severe, life-threatening condition, which requires treatment
in hospital. Chronic pancreatitis typically occurs in people aged 30 to 40years
and can cause abdominal pain, weight loss, diabetes, malnutrition and oily
bowel motions (because the pancreas helps to digest fat and when the pancreas
is damaged, fats are excreted out of the bowel instead of being absorbed into
the body). The risk of acute and chronic pancreatitis increases with higher
alcohol use. Moderate alcohol use is associated with a reduced risk of
developing type 2diabetes, although the exact reason for this is not certain.
SEXUAL HEALTH - MEN
Being drunk increases
the chances of having unsafe sex (without a condom), having sex that is later regretted
or experiencing sexual assault as alcohol
impairs judgment and lowers inhibitions. These factors are also likely to
increase the risk of getting a sexually transmitted infection. Chronic heavy
alcohol use can lead to impotence, loss of sex drive, wasting of the testicles
and reduced fertility. This is primarily because alcohol affects testosterone
levels.
SEXUAL HEALTH - WOMEN
Being drunk increases
the chances of having unsafe sex (without a condom), having sex that is later regretted
or experiencing sexual assault as
alcohol impairs judgment and lowers inhibitions. Such sexual experiences are
also likely to increase the risk of getting a sexually transmitted infection or having an unplanned pregnancy. Chronic
heavy alcohol use can lead to reduced fertility and can make periods heavy or
irregular or stop altogether. Consuming alcohol while pregnant may increase the
risk of miscarriage, low birth weight, stillbirth and premature birth. It can also
cause significant abnormalities in the unborn, developing baby (fetal alcohol
spectrum disorder).
SKIN AND FAT
Acute alcohol use can
lead to skin flushing and worsen the appearance of skin conditions such as
rosacea (a chronic facial skin rash). Chronic heavy alcohol use, when
associated with serious liver disease and liver failure, can also cause yellowing
of the skin, decreased body hair and spider veins. Alcohol is a high-calorie
beverage. One standard drink (100ml of wine, 30ml of spirits or 280ml of
standard beer) contains 290kJ, close to half the energy of a can of fizzy
drink. Alcohol is also an appetite stimulant, and people tend to eat more when consuming
alcohol with their meals. However, while theoretically the potential for
alcohol to increase weight is clear, and some studies find that alcohol use is
associated with increased weight, others find the opposite result. Alcohol
seems more likely to cause weight gain in those who drink intermittently
(moderately to heavily), in those who are already overweight, in those eating a
high-fat diet, and in men. For people concerned about their weight,
nutritionists advise people to take into account how much energy alcohol is contributing
to their diet. Chronic heavy drinkers are likely to be malnourished as alcohol
has little nutritional value and replaces nutritious food in the diet.
STOMACH AND FOOD PIPE(oesophagus)
Being drunk can lead to
nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, heartburn (when acid from the stomach rises up
into the food pipe, due to alcohol causing the muscle around the outlet of the
stomach to relax) and acute gastritis (inflammation of the lining of the
stomach, which causes stomach pain, nausea, loss of appetite and indigestion). Vomiting
and diarrhoea can result in dehydration, salt imbalances and the build-up of
acids in the body, especially in combination with excessive alcohol intake.
Inhaling vomit can lead to bronchitis or pneumonia (infection of the lungs).
Vomit can block the airway and windpipe when blood alcohol is very high and
breathing and consciousness are impaired. Persistent vomiting and retching
after heavy use on a single occasion can sometimes (but only rarely) rip the
food pipe (a Mallory Weiss tear), which leads to vomiting of blood.
Long-term alcohol use
can cause cancer of the food pipe (oesophagus) and drinking 50g of alcohol a
day (five standard drinks) doubles the risk compared with a non-drinker.
However, the risk is much greater in people who drink alcohol who are also
deficient in a liver enzyme that metabolises alcohol (East Asian populations
are commonly deficient in this enzyme). The risk is also increased in smokers. Chronic heavy alcohol use can also
lead to chronic gastritis but alcohol may protect against infection from
Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria that cause ulcers of the stomach. In cases of
advanced liver disease due to prolonged heavy alcohol use, the veins to the
stomach and oesophagus can swell and may burst, causing life-threatening bleeding
LONG-TERM
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL USE
Chronic heavy alcohol
use interferes with the absorption of calcium and bone formation and can
actually lead to osteoporosis. Chronic heavy use is also associated with a
painful condition where bone tissue dies (osteonecrosis), gout (a type of
arthritis or inflammation of the joints, often affecting the joint of the big
toe), and muscle wasting and weakness.
Over time, heavy
drinking can cause permanent damage to the user’s body and brain. Several
factors affect the severity and extent of this damage, including the drinker’s
age and gender as well as the duration and extent of abuse. The physical damage
caused by sustained alcohol abuse includes:
• Liver damage
• Accumulation of fat in the liver
• Cirrhosis – heavy scarring of the
liverprevents blood flow; usually fatal
• Alcoholic hepatitis – swelling of liver
cells, causing blockage; sometimes fatal
• Liver cancer
• Heart damage
• High blood pressure
• Coronary disease – narrowing of the arteries,
leading to heart attack or death
• Enlarged heart
• Irregular heartbeat, which can lead to heart
attack or death
• Decreased blood flow to the arms and legs
• Stroke – blocked blood flow to the brain
• Brain damage
• Lowered cognitive abilities
• Destruction of brain cells, producing brain
deterioration and atrophy
• Mental disorders – increased aggression,
antisocial behavior, depression, anxiety
• Damage to sense of balance, causing more
accidental injuries
• Bone damage
• Bone growth that normally takes place in
teenage years is stunted
• Osteoporosis – severe back pain, spine
deformity, increased risk of fractures
• Pancreas damage
• Pancreatitis – inflammation of the pancreas,
causing abdominal pain, weight loss, and sometimes death
• Cancer
• Alcoholism increases a person’s chances of
developing a variety of cancers of the
pancreas, liver,
breasts, colon, rectum, mouth, pharynx, and esophagus.
• Sexual problems
• Reduced sperm count and mobility, as well as
sperm abnormality
• Menstrual difficulties, irregular/absent
cycles, and decreased fertility
• Early menopause
• Birth defects
• Drinking any alcohol during pregnancy
cancause permanent, severe damage, by
putting the child at
risk for Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Alcohol-Related
Problems
• Premature aging
• Heartburn, nausea, gastritis, and ulcers
• Poor digestion and inflammation of the
intestines
• Malnutrition
• Water retention
• Weakened vision
• Skin disorders
• Korsakoff’s Syndrome – amnesia and delirium
after long-term alcohol abuse
Symptoms
of Alcohol Poisoning
• Person is passed out and extremely difficult
to wake
• Cold, clammy, pale or bluish skin
• Slow or irregular breathing
• Vomiting; person vomits while passed out
Alcohol
and Pregnancy
The prevalence of Fetal
Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) in the United States was estimated by the Institute of
Medicine in 1996 to be between 0.5 and 3.0 cases per 1,000. More recent reports
from specific U.S. sites report the prevalence of FAS to be 2 to 7 cases per
1,000, and the prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) to be as
high as 20 to 50 cases per 1,000.
Health
Benefits of Moderate Alcohol Consumption
Moderate alcohol use
may protect against osteoporosis (thinning of the bones, which makes the bones
more likely to break). Moderate alcohol consumption, according to the 2015–2020
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, is up to 1 drink per day for women and up to
2 drinks per day for men. Moderate alcohol consumption may have beneficial effects
on health. These include decreased risk for heart disease and mortality due to
heart disease, decreased risk of ischemic stroke (in which the arteries to the
brain become narrowed or blocked, resulting in reduced blood flow), and
decreased risk of diabetes. In most Western countries where chronic diseases
such as coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer, stroke, and diabetes are the
primary causes of death, results from large epidemiological studies
consistently show that alcohol reduces mortality, especially among middle-aged
and older men and women—an association that is likely due to the protective
effects of moderate alcohol consumption on CHD, diabetes, and ischemic stroke.
It is estimated that 26,000 deaths were averted in 2005 because of reductions in
ischemic heart disease, ischemic stroke, and diabetes from the benefits
attributed to moderate alcohol consumption. Expanding our understanding of the
relationship between moderate alcohol consumption and potential health benefits
remains a challenge, and, although there are positive effects, alcohol may not
benefit everyone who drinks moderately.
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